Concepts of Gender and Mathematics

Concepts of Gender and Mathematics Introduction In 1896 Charles Darwin wrote â€Å"The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shewn by the mans attaining to a higher eminence, in whatever he takes up, than can women†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.if men are capable of a decided pre-eminence over women in many subjects the average mental power of a man must be above that of women.† (Darwin see Walkerdine, 1989, p. 1) After many years of social change we would expect these views on women to have changed. Indeed, it is not common to hear that, mentally, men are better than women, as women have proved themselves to be just as capable. Take Carol Vorderman for example, in my opinion the most famous female mathematician that I know. She is so good at mental arithmetic that she co-hosted Countdown for 26 years (Vorderman, WWW). However, maths is still perceived as a male dominated subject and it is no wonder that women believe they are inferior to men at mathematics. Even though this myth is meant to be a statistical statement, many women interpret it to mean they cannot do mathematics, having a distressing effect on individuals (Gray, 1996, p. 27). Walkerdine states that â€Å"Women, after all, are clearly irrational, illogical and too close to their emotions to be good at mathematics. Or so the story goes.† (Walkerdine, 1989, p. 1) If certain people actually take on this opinion; that girls are ‘lacking in mathematical ability (Walkerdine, 1989), how are girls supposed to have the confidence to believe they can do mathematics, when â€Å"girls report less confidence in their mathematical ability even when the girls achieve at the same level of boys†? (Fennema see Orlich et al, 2007, p. 52). It is suggested in Burton (1990) that boys are getting more encouragement and praise in the classroom than girls, which builds a lack of confidence causing a negative effect on the girls ability to learn (Burton, 1990). In this essay I will try and address the biological reasoning behind why girls cant do maths and relate this to the ways in which girls learn. The Biology There are two hemispheres to the brain, the left and right. These are specialised, to some extent, to perform different tasks. People usually have a preference to one or the other, although certain people are â€Å"whole brained† in their thinking, and therefore work just as well in either (Funderstanding, WWW). Abigail Norfleet James (2009) has researched into brain differences in boys and girls. She found that language functions and the memory of certain nouns are lateralized to the left hemisphere, whereas mathematical performance and memory of pictures and topography are lateralized to the right hemisphere. Not only did she find differences in the left and right brain, she also researched into certain parts of the brain which help us to learn mathematics using memory and emotions (Norfleet James, 2009). The hippocampus, located inside the medial temporal lobe, plays an important part in long term memory and spatial navigation (Hippocampus, WWW). The Amygdala, which is also found deep in the medial temporal lobe, performs a primary role in the processing of memory and emotional reactions (Amygdala, WWW). The research showed that as the hippocampus and the left side of the brain develops faster in girls, they excel in language, verbalising and working through situations logically. The righ t side of the brain and the Amygdala develops faster in boys, so their mathematical calculations and performance are prominent in their learning (Norfleet James, 2009). â€Å"To oversimplify a complex issue, the left hemisphere in most humans is primarily concerned with language based behaviour and with the cognitive skills we might crudely characterize as analytical or logical. It has become apparent recently that the right hemisphere is far superior to the left in most visual and spatial abilities† (Davies and Hersh, 1995, p. 346) If we look at certain traits from the opposite sides of the brain, we can see that the left brain is notorious for being analytical and sequential, rational and thinking objectively where as the right side is identified with spatial intelligence, thinking randomly and using an intuitive approach to situations (Funderstanding, WWW). Research suggests that the male brain holds an advantage with making quick decisions from lists where as the female brain works inductively and needs much more information to make that same decision (Gurian et al, 2001). It can be said therefore, that women are more inclined to think in a left brained way and men, a right brained way. As a result of this boys tend to have significantly better spatial skills and find visualizing abstract objects easier. When it comes to learning maths we need to use the whole brain; the left and right hemispheres and the frontal lobe (Gurian et al, 2001, p. 51). Primary and Secondary Schools tend to have more female than male teachers (Statistics, WWW). In my opinion, female teachers are more likely to teach using the traits found in the left side of the brain as this is what they naturally excel at. This could possibly be seen as the preferred way of teaching as the traits linked to the right side of the brain are usually connected with impulsive actions and general disruption in class (Gurian et al, 2001). In schools, students are taught to think in a successive way, where they build on previous knowledge. They are taught logical steps, which gives a method they then apply to a question to gain an answer. If, however, the student comes across a problem they have not faced before, they may lack the intuitive skills that would allow them to solve this particular, difficult problem. This method of teaching is sometimes seen as being biased towards the female way of learning, as it develops the skills which girls are already, naturally gifted with. However, to study maths to a higher level, rules and methods can only get you so far. The right hand side of the brain allows you to look at problems as a â€Å"whole† rather than in individual, single steps. As boys naturally develop this part of their brains, they are already able to think subjectively (to relate their problems to personal experiences or previous challenges they have faced), a skill girls have to learn. Thus, with the schooling system developing the boys left hemispheres, they are capable of answering much more difficult, unseen questions, which may require more than just the taught rules. Girls are generally left brained and are therefore disadvantaged, as they are educated to think in one way, their right hemisphere being overlooked. The right brained boys, however, are taught these left brained skills, and coupled with their natural way of thinking allows them to be â€Å" whole brained† and much more efficient at the more difficult maths problems. (Fennema Leder, 1990; Gurian et al, 2001; Norfleet James, 2009) If schools are focusing on a certain method which disadvantages either girls or boys in ways of their brain functions, are they also biased in the way they are teaching, with regards to how boys and girls learn? Learning Styles Along with having a stronger side of the brain, girls are also inclined to use their minds in a specific way. This is usually related to the way they think. Research has shown that there are two types of reasoning; abstract and concrete. Abstract is â€Å"not seeing or touching the thing and yet still being able to calculate it. For example, when mathematics is taught on a blackboard, boys often do better at it than girls.† (Gurian et al, 2001, p. 45). If information was to be taken from the blackboard and put onto, for instance, number lines, which are inevitably more concrete, girls tend to thrive. For girls to understand the more abstract parts of maths, for example geometry, they must bring these aspects to life. In Primary School learning, the idea of Logo (a computerised turtle which moves round the screen following directions) makes the abstract ideas of direction and angles become more concrete. In fact many IT programs used in the classroom have been designed to give a concrete illustration of an abstract idea (Skrimshaw, 1993). Furthermore, people have a predisposition to relate to a particular learning strategy. It has been suggested that girls tend to conform to the serialist, or analytic, model of thinking (Clark and Millard, 1998). These are â€Å"one step at a time learners† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 68) who work through problems methodically, leading to instrumental understanding. In an article on the different types of understanding, Skemp (1976) described instrumental as ‘rules without reasons. What he did not realise was, â€Å"that for many the possession of such a rule and the ability to use it, is what they mean by ‘understanding† (Skemp, 1976, p. 2). Aside from serialistic understanding we have the holistic, or intuitive, model of thinking. Scott-Hodgetts claimed that holists like to take â€Å"an exploratory way, working first towards an understanding of an overall framework† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 68). The approach that holists take of looking at the whole framework and then filling in the gaps is a way of relational understanding, not only knowing which method works, but why. So although it may take longer for a pupil to become a relational learner, as there is more content, it is never the less, easier, for the holist thinker to then adapt this method and apply it to unknown problems (Skemp, 1976). This is seen as the preferable method to learning as it allows students to link together different concepts of mathematics. Research shows that boys coincide with this manner of thinking (Clark and Millard, 1998). A lucky few tend to be able to switch between both the holist and the serialist approach. These students are called versatile learners. In higher level mathematics it becomes very important to be able to switch your view point, from looking at a problem analytically to globally, in order to see the problem as a whole. â€Å" pupils are expected to do more than simply reproduce items of knowledge, as they have been taught. They must, for example, also be able to restructure bodies of knowledge in ways appropriate to different problems a difficult task for the serialists because of their inclination to learn sequentially, without necessarily forming an overall picture of the relationships involved. whilst holists are busy speculating about relationships, and discovering the connections between initially disjoint areas of mathematics, it may not even occur to serialists to begin to look for such links.† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 73) If you are capable therefore of using both of these techniques then surely you gain great advantage over your fellow workers? There are a few issues regarding these learning strategies. In Primary schools, students should have â€Å"the freedom to develop their ideas using their preferred learning strategies, however, teachers do sometimes impose their own strategies upon pupils† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 70). I believe at such a young age, it is easier for the teacher to teach rules and for the pupil to learn these, even if they have no understanding of them. Take long multiplication for example. I was taught a step by step procedure which gave me an answer. At this age I had very little idea about why we added a zero at the end of the second line of computation, or why we ‘carried a one; I was just told that is how it is done. This method of learning, remembering and applying, confirms to serialists that this approach is best and leads to success. Even in Secondary school it is known that â€Å"teacher exposition tends to be serialistic in style† (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p. 70), Scott-Hodgetts (1986) claims that children who are predisposed to a serialist approach are less likely to become versatile learners than those who think more holistically, purely because of the way that they have been taught (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986). However, it has been discovered that if serialists are exposed to a holistic style of teaching they are just as capable of gaining the same understanding, at the time, as the holists. Although, Pask and Scott, claim that in the long term, such teaching has a â€Å"genuine effect on reducing efficiency†(Pask and Scott see Scott-Hodgetts, 1986, p.72). This inconsistency of teaching styles could explain why certain pupils are capable of working well in class, but then not performing well in mathematics examinations. (Scott-Hodgetts, 1986) At the same time that serialists are convincing themselves that learning and remembering their method is the way to gain the top grades, holistic learners will be shown the effectiveness of a different strategy. They have then begun to be a versatile learner before they reach secondary education. Conclusion After looking at the brain and the mind in relation to learning mathematics, I feel that it is not that girls cannot do maths, on the contrary girls have many skills that would make them adept at the subject, it is more that girls are not taught the right techniques, which would broaden their minds when it comes to tackling harder mathematical problems. I believe that if girls were taught in a holistic way they would, like the boys, learn how to look at problems as a whole and become more proficient at their mathematics. However, as Pask and Scott (see Scott-Hodgetts, 1986) pointed out, mixing learning techniques can become a disadvantage in the long run to the serialistic learners. But if Holists are able to learn from a serialistic point of view, why cant serialist learn from a holistic point of view? Surely this would increase the number of versatile learners? Drawing on my own experiences as a woman, if I look at the skills I have developed to reach my current level in mathematics, I know that I have needed to be analytical in most of the problems I have encountered, as well as being able to observe the problem in full. Surprisingly, being able to think randomly as well as logically can sometimes help to solve the most difficult problems. Evidence shows that even though boys are more naturally intuitive and seem to have many of the skills needed in progressing in mathematics, girls are analytical and sequential which are evidently needed for mathematics. The natural abilities that most girls seem to inherit are the key components when first learning maths. It is only the boys ability to understand this new way of learning, which automatically makes them versatile learners, that gives them the edge over girls. Being able to look at problems analytically and form an algorithm to obtain an answer is vital to any problem solving subject, and therefore it is easy to see why girls can enjoy, and can be good at mathematics. We can see from the following statistics that boys excel when the maths becomes more complicated. In Teresa Smarts article on Gender and Maths in England and Wales she explains that even though there are fewer boys than girls taking GCSE mathematics, more boys continue maths on to A-Level. Only 35% of pupils taking A-Level in 1992 were girls, which shows that the percentage of girls studying mathematics decreases as the level of mathematics increases (Smart, T. 1996). This reiterates that girls can do maths; they are just not taught the necessary skills which are needed to continue the subject to A-Level or even university. However, in researching this topic I found that it is not only our brain or the way we learn which causes us to think we, as girls, are not capable at maths, but also society and the perception they have on girls and mathematics. Until recently girls have very much been considered for different jobs than boys. Careers advice to girls in the fifth form in the 1980s was based on â€Å"retail and clerical types of employment† (Burton, 1986). If girls were adamant that they wanted to study what was considered to be a more male subject, they were expected to achieve higher grades or in some cases, not considered for the jobs at all. In fact, one fifth form girl, in which the section of Burtons book is written, was told by her interviewer that he discouraged women from taking opportunities which would better their career (taking day-release) as they â€Å"tend to leave and have babies† (Burton, 1986). In todays job market women are considered equal to men, however, I feel, it will take a few years before we see equal numbers of women and men in male dominated occupations. It is also important to point out that the content of this essay relates to the general assumption of boys and girls. I know myself, that after extensive research I would consider myself to be a holistic thinker, contrary to what the research suggests I should be as a girl. Does this mean that those female students who study university mathematics and indeed go further, think in a more male way, or are they just fortunate enough to have become versatile learners despite what they have been taught at school? The statement; Girls cant do Maths: Myth or Fact, could be argued to be both myth and fact. We have seen that girls are less likely to be better at maths biologically but if our teaching system was different would we gain different results?

Make a Wish Foundation Essay

Specific Purpose: To inform the audience about what the Make-A-Wish foundation does for children with life-altering conditions. Thesis Statement: The Make-A-Wish Foundation’s mission reflects the life-changing impact that a Make-A-Wish experience has on children, families, and entire communities. Introduction . I. Attention-getter: â€Å"A wish granted has a deep, life-affirming impact on the wish child and family, creating the hope, strength and joy so greatly needed. What makes each wish even more remarkable is the power to enrich so many others’ lives – from friends, volunteers and donors to sponsors and even entire communities.† –David Williams, President and Chief Executive Officer, Make-A-Wish Foundation of America. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) . II.Establishment of Ethos: I joined the sorority Chi-Omega this August. Chi-Omega has many great things to offer one being the opportunity to work with the Make-A-Wish Foundation. I will work with children with life altering diseases and watch them get their wishes granted. . III. Preview (each main point): First†¦ I will discuss what Make-A-Wish Foundation is all about Next†¦ I will talk about the steps included in granting a wish Finally†¦ I would like to share what Chi-Omega does for the Make-A-Wish Foundation. Transition: I will begin by telling you about the Make-A-Wish Foundation and telling a few stories of wishes. Body: I. Main Idea 1: Make-A-Wish Foundation has evolved into an organization that grants a child’s wish in the United States and its territories every 40 minutes. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) 1. Point: Since 1980 Make-A-Wish has enriched the lives of children with life threatening medical conditions through its wish-granting work. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) `. a.Sub-point: The Foundation was founded after a little Boy named Chris Greicius realized his wish in life was to become a police officer. Little did he know his wish would be the inspiration for the largest wish-granting organization in the World. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) `. b. Sub-point: Since then, the organization has  blossomed into a worldwide phenomenon, reaching more than 193,000 children around the world. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) 0. 2. Point: The Make-A-Wish Foundation grants wishes like going to Disney World, being a police officer for a day, shopping sprees, etc. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) 0 a. Sub-point: 17 year old Susana Romero has had extreme kidney problems since she was born and is severely hearing impaired. She was given the chance to make a wish. Since her condition caused her to be in her room most of the time she chose to have her room redone into something for a teen queen. She stated, â€Å"Now it looks beautiful—better than beautiful.† (Edwards) * â€Å"Because of her medical condition, Susana has to spend a lot of time indoors and it is very important for her room to be one of her favorite places.† Stated Mark Pilon president of the local Make-A-Wish Foundation. (Edwards) b. Sub-point: 11-year-old Karina Valverde has received two heart transplants, her first one when she was 11 months old and her second at age 9. She found out she was able to make a wish after seven months in the hospital. â€Å"Karina’s wish is quite unusual.† Friyana Shah, a volunteer, said. She asked to visit the State of Liberty in New York. The trip touched her and her entire family. (Perez, 2010) Transition: Since I told you about what The Make-A-Wish Foundation and a few wish stories I would like to explain the steps in granting a wish. . II.Main Idea 2: The Make-A-Wish website explains four simple steps to granting a wish. Each and every step builds on the next to create amazing experiences that please the kids and their family. 0. 1. Point: The first step in granting a wish is the referral step. `. a.Sub-point: The organization relies on referrals from medical professionals, parents and the children themselves. b. Sub-point: Children between the ages of two and a half and eighteen who have not received a wish from another wish-granting organization may be eligible for a wish. 2. Point: The second step is Medical Eligibility. a. Sub-Point: Make a wish determines a child’s medical eligibility with the help of the treating physician. b. Sub-Point: The child must be diagnosed with a life-threatening medical condition that has placed the child’s life in jeopardy. 3. Point: Step number three is finding the true wish. a. Sub-Point: Make A Wish finds one of their enthusiastic wish teams to learn all about the child’s one very important wish. b. Sub-Point: These passionate  volunteers connect with the children and help explore their imaginations for the experience that will inspire them. 4. Point: The Fourth most important step is creating joy. a. Sub-Point: The wish-granters create an unforgettable experience driven by the child’s creativity. They make it an incredible experience that will enrich not just the lives of the children and their families, but often an entire community. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) Transition: The four steps of wish granting cannot be completed without the help of volunteers such as Chi-Omega. III. Main Idea 3: One of Chi-Omegas six purposes is their philanthropy, The Make-A-Wish Foundation. Since the start of their alliance they have made a difference in a huge number of children’s lives through volunteering time, talents, and raising money. 1. Sub-Point: Chi-Omegas have organized and sponsored very successful events through volunteering and fundraising. With both they have raised financial support and public awareness. 2. Sub-Point: The Chi-Omega chapter at the University of Arkansas became a Gold Level Sponsor with the Make-A-Wish Foundation. 3. Sub-Point: Since 2001 Chi-Omegas at the U of A have raised over $3.8 million and completed over 238,000 volunteer hours. (Make-A-Wish, 2006) Transition: Now that I have told you about Chi-Omega and what I can do to help out with this great organization I will conclude my speech. Conclusion: I.Summary: This wonderful organization touches the hearts of everyone involved through fundraisers and volunteering. . II.Review (each main point): During my speech I discussed what The Make-A-Wish Foundation is all about, the steps in granting a wish, and what Chi-Omega does for the organization. . III.Creative Concluding Thought: Now that I have informed you about the Make-A-Wish Foundation, I hope you can take this in consideration to volunteer and help change children’s lives with life-threatening conditions. References Brooke Edwards. (17 July). A ROOM OF HER OWN: Wish comes true for Apple Valley teen with surprise bedroom makeover 17-year-old has kidney problems. McClatchy – Tribune Business News, Retrieved September 13, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Complete. (Document ID: 2082473241). Make-A-Wish Foundation of America (2006). Retrieved September, 2010 Perez, C. (2010, August 26). A Dream Come True: Foundation makes girl’s New York trip possible. Dodge City Daily Global.

Learn Mandarin Chinese with Pinyin Romanization

Pinyin is a Romanization system used to learn Mandarin. It transcribes the sounds of Mandarin using the Western (Roman) alphabet. Pinyin is most commonly used in Mainland China for teaching school children to read and it is also widely used in teaching materials designed for Westerners who wish to learn Mandarin. Pinyin was developed in the 1950’s in Mainland China and is now the official Romanization system of China, Singapore, the US Library of Congress, and the American Library Association. Library standards allow for easier access to documents by making it easier to locate Chinese language materials. A worldwide standard also facilitates the exchange of data between institutions in various countries. Learning Pinyin is important. It provides a way to read and write Chinese without using Chinese characters - a major hurdle for most people who want to learn Mandarin. Pinyin Perils Pinyin provides a comfortable base for anyone trying to learn Mandarin: it looks familiar. Be careful though! The individual sounds of Pinyin are not always the same as English. For example, ‘c’ in Pinyin is pronounced like the ‘ts’ in ‘bits’. Here’s an example of Pinyin: Ni hao. This means â€Å"hello† and is the sound of these two Chinese characters: ä ½  Ã¥ ¥ ½ It is essential to learn all the sounds of Pinyin. This will provide the foundation for proper Mandarin pronunciation and will allow you to learn Mandarin more easily. Tones The four Mandarin tones are used for clarifying the meaning of words. They are indicated in Pinyin with either numbers or tone marks: ma1 or mÄ  (high-level tone)ma2 or mà ¡ (rising tone)ma3 or mÇŽ (falling-rising tone)ma4 or mà   (falling tone) Tones are important in Mandarin because there are many words with the same sound. Pinyin should be written with tone marks to make the meaning of the words clear. Unfortunately, when Pinyin is used in public places (like on street signs or store displays) it usually does not include the tone marks. Here is the Mandarin version of â€Å"hello† written with tons marks: nÇ  hÇŽo or ni3 hao3. Standard Romanization Pinyin is not perfect. It uses many letter combinations which are unknown in English and other Western languages. Anyone who has not studied Pinyin is likely to mispronounce the spellings. Despite its shortcomings, it’s best to have a single system of Romanization for the Mandarin language. Before the official adoption of Pinyin, the differing Romanization systems created confusion about the pronunciation of Chinese words.

The Industrial Revolution in the Great Britain of the 1800s

Great Britain had the perfect conditions to spearhead the first true revolution that had an effect in all aspects of life since the invention of fire. It possessed necessary prerequisites, such as formidable population size, bountiful coal and iron deposits, and the demand of such a revolution, to gain a head start over the rest of the world. The confluence of such factors culminated in a perfect storm, a storm that destined humanity to become more than an average species. The Industrial Revolution in the Great Britain in the 1800s was not just a revolution in industry. The Industrial Revolution was a total revolution that opened the doorway for humanity to enter the first global age and built the stairway for humanity to eventually†¦show more content†¦The long term outcomes of the Industrial Revolution affected not just the workers, but people of all demographics also. The clustering of factories in cities, such as London and Manchester, led to hyper-urbanization of cities in Britain (Cleary). Urbanization continued unabated as London increased its population size by 3 million people in a span of 40 years, and Manchester exploded to have a population of 180000 in 1831 after its Population was just 22000 in 1771 (Hobsawm 159). Crowded streets, inadequate housing, and pollution characterized what the norm was for cities and the citizens of the cities (Hobsawm 44). Hyper-urbanization led to poor sanitation and decreased life expectancy during the 19th century as diseases, such as consumption, typhus, and cholera, deprived the poor workers of their health (Cleary). More than 60000 lives were claimed by consumption alone in each decade of 19th century, and with the poor wages that workers received and the conditions that they worked and lived under did not alleviate the spread of diseases and deaths at all (Cleary). 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